Evaluation Of Progesterone And Estrogen Biology Essay

evaluation Of Progester unrivaled And Estrogen Biology EssaySteroid hormones viz. progesterone, o o o estrogen were estimated through tender loving care in a parsimoniousness and time qualified manner i.e. 2.5mg/ml, 5.0mg/ml for 30 45 minutes and, 0.2mg/ml, 0.4mg/ml for 30 45 minutes respectively. Progesterone and estrogen were stained with 50% v/v aq. closure of Conc. H2SO4 and were estimated through tender loving care in a concentration and time aquiline manner.Different sex hormone hormones travel at contrary place due to the residues in their attraction to the stationary phase and because of differences in solvability in the resolvent. These Rf values obtained from both the hormones were then comp ared and it was found that there was a reason sufficient difference. Further, a news report on the fundamental interaction of steroid hormones with fatty mordants and proteins was undertaken victimisation a spectrophotometer. Steroid hormones viz. progesterone and estro gen were do to interact with measured metres of alcohol, stearic superman and bovine serum ov egg white (BSA) and their absorbance were recorded at the excitation wavelength of 410 nm victimization a spectrophotometer. Progesterone (conc.2mg/ml) and estrogen (conc. 0.5mg/ml) were all(prenominal) convert integrity with 0.1 ml, 0.2ml and 0.4ml of stearic sultry (conc. 0.5mg/ml) and 5 mg, 10 mg and 15 mg of BSA separately and their absorbance were tell at 410nm. A slight shift in the absorbance was found on the boilers suit interaction of steroids progesterone and estrogen with alcohol, stearic acid and BSA respectively, when excited to 410 nm. olibanum an attempt was made to establish a valid spectrophotometric influence for the hit the books of interaction of steroid hormones with fatty acids and proteins.Key words Progesterone, estrogen, stearic acid, bovine serum albumin, chromatographyRunning title Evaluation of progesterone and estrogen knowledgeablenessSteroids ar e a class of compounds that bewilder a cyclopentano-perhydro-phenanthrene skeleton and that eliminate in character and in synthetic products. The bile acids, androgens, estrogens, corticosteroids, ecdysteroids, sterols and vitamin D are compounds included in the class of steroids. Steroids and their metabolites are analyzed by sensitive- grade chromatography (TLC) in a assortment of specimens such as biological tests or plants and pharmaceutic exerciseulations. TLC continues to be an important system for the determination of steroids because of its advantages. Many samples dissolve be analyzed simultaneously and quickly at relatively first cost, quaternary separation techniques and detective work procedures commode be applied and the detection limits are often in the economic crisis nanogram range and decimal densitometric regularitys are accurate. The albumin-mediated hepatic uptakes of free fatty acids 1, bile acids and Rose Bengal 2 encounter been reported, but t he kinetics are not sufficiently clear. It was suggested by around experimental results in vitro using a liquid membrane ashes (hexane source phase/bovine serum/hexane receiving phase) that the rate of uptake of steroids from product line to intracellular space is controlled not only in the free form but also in forms bound with serum proteins such as albumin 3. Nowa twenty-four hour periods, it is commonly accepted that the fractions of steroids which confiscate with high comparison to blood plasma proteins such as globulins are less easily available to tissues. Although steroids bind with low affinity to human beings serum albumin (HSA), most(prenominal) of the circulate steroids were bound to HSA due to the high concentration of albumin 4. Recent studies have shown that, in addition to free steroids, those bound to albumin in plasma may also be available to tissues 5. The vertebral column of steroids to albumin is touched by temperature, pH, fatty acid and competing ligands. Plasma levels of FFA vary throughout the day 6 and the availability of steroids to tissues is changed by FFA binding to albumin. Serum albumin is the most easy protein in the circulatory system, accounting for 60% of the total serum protein . In mammals, albumin is synthesized by the liver and possesses a half-life in circulation of 19 days. Its principal function is to transport fatty acids, a great variety of metabolites and drugs such as anti-coagulants, tranquilizers and general anesthetics. Serum albumin has been one of the most studied proteins for over 40 years because its primary social organisation is very(prenominal) easily known for a long time and its tertiary structure was determined a few years ago by roentgen ray crystallography.It is known that progesterone and estrogen were bound to the same land site on serum albumin (SA) 7 and consequently a competition effect hold probably between these two steroid sex-hormones. Then, even if in vivo, the dimen sion between the progesterone and the estrogen rate was controlled by multiple mechanisms and Gleasons notice could be explained by an enhancement of the progesterone displacement to its SA binding site by estrogen when Mg2+ cation concentration increased 8. SA is the major plasma protein accountable for the reversible binding of a wide range of drugs 9. Extensive studies on different aspects of drug-SA interactions are still in progress because of the clinical conditional relation of the put to work, especially in the case of tightly bound drugs (K 105M1) 10. Numerous analytical techniques are use for protein binding studies and they are continuously being added to, along with extending knowledge well-nigh the complex mechanisms involved in the drug-SA binding process 11. It has recognized that an inverse family relationship exists between the number of polar groups in a steroid and the position of interaction with serum albumin. With the aid of a spectrophotometric procedur e (12), the validity of which was established by a comparison with the method of equilibrium dialysis, the influence of structural alterations in sex steroids on the interaction with bovine serum albumin (BSA) was investigated. It was found that introduction of 0x0 or hydroxyl groups in various positions weakens this interaction, and that introduction of methyl groups has the opposite effect. Characteristic differences were noted for CY substituents in their influence on the strength of association. Furthermore, the elution profiles of change-filtration chromatography clearly showed that progesterone and testosterone are easily liberated from the steroid/BSA complexes and that FFA potentiates the binding of these steroids to BSA. In the case of HSA, the binding affinities of progesterone and testosterone were not greatly affected by bound FFA 13,14.This story was undertaken towards chromatographic evaluation of progesterone and estrogen using the H2SO4 staining method and spectr ophotometric analysis of the interaction of both the sex steroids with BSA and stearic acid.Materials and MethodsDrugs and chemicals Progesterone, Estrogen, Silica gel ( tiptop Chemicals, India)sulphuric acid reagent, benzene, ethyl ethanoate, bovine serum albumin, stearic acid, ethanol, propene glycolTLC Equipment whole the equipments employ for TLC apply were from ACME synthetics, Mumbai, India. Acme applicator, TLC glass collection plates, Beakers, Capillary pipettes for spotting solutions, Rulers, hot plates, Gloves were used for all chemical usage.Thin socio-economic class chromatography Thisis a chromatographytechnique used to separate concoctions.Thin layer chromatography is performed on a sheet of glass, plastic, or aluminum foil, which is coated with a thin layer ofadsorbentmaterial, usuallysilica gel, aluminium oxide, orcellulose. This layer of adsorbent is known as thestationary phase.After the sample has been applied on the plate, asolventor solvent mixture (known as themobile phase) is drawn up by the plate viacapillary action. Because differentanalytes ascend the TLC plate at different rates, separation is achieved. In steroid analysis, TLC is the method of choice, especially when many simultaneous analyses have to be carried out, hundreds of analyses butt joint be performed in a short time and with small demands on equipment and space. Samples tummy be analyzed with minimal clean up, and analyzing a sample by the use of multiple separation steps and static post-chromatographic detection procedure is also possible because all sample components are stored on the layer without the chance of loss. The time required in TLC analysis is about 10-60 min. As little as 0.001 g of steroids/spot fuel be can be detected by TLC. Using a TLC plate with thicker adsorbent layers (0.5-2 min), several grams of substance can be isolated.Sulphuric acid staining methodAfter plate development, the plate is arid and sprayed with a 50% v/v aqueous solution of sulphuric acid in a fume hood. The hood was exposed to super corrosive materials and, thus, all fittings were made of glass or acid revolting plastic. After spraying, and while still in the fume hood, the plate is het to about 80C for about 45 minutes on a hot plate or in an oven. The solutes are partially oxidized leaving behind a charred deposit of b insufficiency vitamin C that is easy to distinguish. This method allow detect most in inconstant organic compounds. Sulfuric acid spray reagent was found to be peculiarly suitable for differentiating natural estrogens from diethylstilbestrol in both a mixture of natural steroids and in biologic preparations under daylight as well as ultraviolet light.Solvent system benzine and Ethyl acetate in the ratio of 51Spectrophotometric evaluationSpectrophotometric techniques are used to measure the concentration of solutes in solution by measuring the amount of light that is absorbed by the solution in a cuvette place in the spectrop hotometer. Spectrophotometry takes advantage of the dual nature of light. Namely, light has1. A component nature which gives rise to the photoelectric effect2. A wave nature which gives rise to the visible spectrum of light.The spectrophotometer can measure the amount of light (of true frequency) transmitted or adsorbed by the solution. This light that has not been absorbed by the solution in the cuvette, will strike the phototube. The photons of light that strike the phototube will be converted into electrical energy. This current that is produced is very small and moldiness be amplified before it can be efficiently detected. The signal is relative to the amount of light which originally struck the phototube and is thus an accurate step of the amount of light which has passed through (been transmitted by) the sample. Different compounds having dissimilar atomic and molecular interactions have characteristic absorption phenomena and absorption spectra. Concentration of every(p renominal) component may be found from the spectrophotometer measurements and calibration curve made using the samples of known concentration. In this study the spectrophotometer used was Ultrospec III (Pharmacia). All samples were analysed at an absorbance of 410 nm and optical density was recorded.SULFURIC ACID spraying CABINETExperimental Protocols1) interaction OF STEROIDS WITH BOVINE SERUM ALBUMIN (BSA)The sample solution consists of progesterone and estrogen mixed each with stearic acid and BSA in three different concentrations and the absorbance is noted at 410 nm.2ml progesterone (2mg/ml) + 1 ml stearic acid (0.5mg/ml) + 5mg BSA2ml progesterone (2mg/ml) + 1 ml stearic acid (0.5mg/ml) + 10mg BSA2ml progesterone (2mg/ml) + 1 ml stearic acid (0.5mg/ml) + 15mg BSA2ml estrogen (0.5mg/ml) + 1 ml stearic acid (0.5mg/ml) + 5mg BSA2ml estrogen (0.5mg/ml) + 1 ml stearic acid (0.5mg/ml) + 10mg BSA2ml estrogen (0.5mg/ml) + 1 ml stearic acid (0.5mg/ml) + 15mg BSA2) INTERACTION OF STERO IDS WITH ALCOHOLSThe sample solution consists of progesterone and estrogen mixed each with ethanol and propylene glycol in the following concentrations and the absorbance of each sample is noted at 410nm.0.5ml progesterone (2mg/ml) + 2 ml ethanol0.5ml progesterone (2mg/ml) + 2 ml propylene glycol0.5ml estrogen (0.5mg/ml) + 2 ml ethanol0.5ml estrogen (0.5mg/ml) + 2 ml propylene glycol3) INTERACTION OF STEROIDS WITH STEARIC ACIDThe sample solution consists of progesterone and estrogen mixed each with ethanol and stearic acid in three different concentrations and the absorbance is noted at 410 nm.0.5ml progesterone (2mg/ml) + 2 ml ethanol + 0.1 ml stearic acid(0.5mg/ml)0.5ml progesterone (2mg/ml) + 2 ml ethanol + 0.2 ml stearic acid(0.5mg/ml)0.5ml progesterone (2mg/ml) + 2 ml ethanol + 0.4 ml stearic acid(0.5mg/ml)0.5ml estrogen (0.5mg/ml) + 2 ml ethanol + 0.1 ml stearic acid(0.5mg/ml)0.5ml estrogen (0.5mg/ml) + 2 ml ethanol + 0.2 ml stearic acid(0.5mg/ml)0.5ml estrogen (0.5mg/ml) + 2 ml ethanol + 0.4 ml stearic acid(0.5mg/ml)Results The results of experiments conducted with chromatographic and spectrophotometric evaluation of progesterone and estrogen are depicted in add-in 1 2 and habituss 1 2. The results show appreciable difference in Rf values of progesterone and estrogen depending on the elution time. Similarly the addition of BSA to the reaction mixture of progesterone and estrogen showed appreciable difference in optical density as depicted in Figures 1 2. Stearic acid (0.5mg) was also able to shift the absorbance values of progesterone.TABLE 1 Conc. H2SO4 STAINEDPROGESTERONES.NOPROGESTE-RON CONC. (mg/ml) epoch era (min)DIST. MOVED BY SOLUTE (cm)DIST. MOVED BY SOLVENT (cm) store grammatical constituent (Rf)12.5306.67.20.91622.5459.39.80.94835.0306.77.20.93045.0459.59.80.9690.1ml progesterone (25mg/ml) + 50% v/v aq. solution of Conc. H2SO40.2ml progesterone (25mg/ml) + 50% v/v aq. solution of Conc. H2SO4SOLVENT administration Benzene and Ethyl acet ate in the ratio of 51TABLE 2 Conc. H2SO4 STAINED ESTROGENS.NOESTROGEN CONC. (mg/ml)TIME DURATION (min)DIST. MOVED BY SOLUTE (cm)DIST. MOVED BY SOLVENT (cm)RETENTION FACTOR (Rf)10.2306.67.80.85820.2456.78.20.80430.4306.87.8087140.4456.88.20.8290.2ml estrogen (1mg/ml) + 50% v/v aq. solution of Conc. H2SO40.4ml estrogen (1mg/ml) + 50% v/v aq. solution of Conc. H2SO4SOLVENT SYSTEM Benzene and Ethyl acetate in the ratio of 51Figure 1Figure 2DiscussionSteroids and their metabolites are analyzed by thin-layer chromatography (TLC) in a variety of samples such as biological samples or plants and pharmaceutical formulations. TLC continues to be an important method for the determination of steroids because of its advantages 15.Many samples can be analyzed simultaneously and quickly at relatively low cost, multiple separation techniques and detection procedures can be applied and the detection limits are often in the low nanogram range and numerical densitometric methods are accurate. The res ults of this study suggest the novel mechanism using laborious H2SO4 to identify the eluted progesterone and estrogen on a thin layer chromatography plate. The results of the TLC obtained were satisfactory and although this technique is comparatively old but can be applied to find out the Rf values of the steroids in a simple manner. The benzene and ethyl acetate combination turn out to be an effective mobile phase. There was some difference in the Rf values based on the time duration of TLC but it was marginal. The results are shown in Table 1 and Table 2.To prize the effect of fatty acid and protein, stearic acid and BSA, we conducted studies on the absorbance using the spectrophotometer. Our results suggest that addition of BSA to the reaction mixture caused significant change in optical density in both steroids i.e progesterone and estrogen (Fig.1 2). The cellular effects elicited by estrogen and progesterone 16 covalently conjugated to membrane impermeable BSA have been att ributed to non-genomic actions mediated by membrane associated hormone receptors. It has previously been established that for physiological concentrations of progesterone and albumin in the circulating blood, virtually 99% of the steroid is bound to albumin. If more than one molecule of the protein participated in the binding of one molecule of progesterone, dimerization or complexing of more than two albumin molecules would result and should be demonstrable by the viscosity and by the bank deposit behavior of the system. Determination of viscosity and sedimentation constants under the conditions outlined in the experimental part failed to reveal any differences between the albumin solutions with and without progesterone. It was reason from these findings that only one molecule of human serum albumin complexes with one molecule of progesterone. It would seem reasonable to assume that a similar hoagy relationship exists in the interaction of other steroid molecules with serum alb umin. The steric relationship between the two components in the complex was investigated by measuring the strength of interaction between albumin and epimeric steroids. Such a comparison should stomach conclusions as to the spatial arrangement of the interacting molecules. Thus there are multiple reasons for the change in absorbance with addition of BSA to the reaction mixture 17.Furthermore, fatty acid tends to minimize or eliminate the well-known differences in affinity between bovine and human albumin for interactions with these two steroids 18. The values for binding affinity in the interaction of testosterone with these batches of human serum albumin are significantly higher than those previously published by some authors and the value for progesterone-bovine albumin interaction is not in accordance with the polarity rule. Studies of these same interactions by ultraviolet difference spectroscopy give further evidence of the augmentation in binding but, in the case of defatted bovine albumin only, the aromatic difference troughs are indicative of tyrosine perturbation whereas refatted bovine albumin, defatted and refatted human albumin unmixed tryptophan perturbation. Quantitative correlation of perturbation with level of bound steroid suggests that fatty acid alters the ratio (possibly total heat-bonded to non hydrogen-bonded) of two forms of bound steroid. This concept gains in validity when one considers the nature of the binding forces between steroid and protein. For lack of specific knowledge as to these forces, the binding between neutral steroids and proteins may best be interpreted as mediated by hydrogen bonds and van der Waals forces 19. Common to both of these binding mechanisms is the low energy of the bond, of the format of 5 to 10 kcal per mole, which explains the ready dissociation of the complexes. Furthermore, they are highly dependent upon the distance the van der Waals forces for spherical atoms are inversely proportional to the on e-seventh power of the distance between the atomic centers. For efficient interaction, therefore, a weedy fit of the steroid and protein surfaces would be required.Whether the presence of stearic acid entirely in any way alters chemical configuration and affects the absorbance by spectrophotometer can only be ascertained by specific chemical tests The change in stearic acid mediated absorbance with progesterone can be attributed to interplay of chemical forces between the steroid and the fatty acid. Studies with lauric, myristic, and palmitic acid showed that the decrease of binding affinity for progesterone was proportional to the amount of fatty acid added to albumin, and to its orbit length. These results confirm and extend other findings of inhibition of progesterone binding to human albumin by saturated fatty acids.In conclusion this study describes a novel H2SO4 staining technique to visualize the sex steroids, progesterone and estrogen and a change in spectrophotometric ab sorbance of progesterone and estrogen by BSA and stearic acid.Legend for Figures and TablesTable 1 Table 1 describes the thin layer chromatographic evaluation of progesterone (2.5 5 mg) conducted using the toilsome H2SO4 staining technique and eluted for a duration of 30 and 45 minutes. The last column of the table shows the Rf values obtained.Table 2 Table 2 describes the thin layer chromatographic evaluation of estrogen (0.2 0.4 mg) conducted using the concentrated H2SO4 staining technique and eluted for a duration of 30 and 45 minutes. The last column of the table shows the Rf values obtained.Figure 1 Figure 2 describes the optical density values at absorbance of 410 nm obtained with estrogen (0.25 1 mg), ethanol (2ml), bovine serum albumin (10mg) and stearic acid (0.5 mg) altogether or in combination.Figure 2 This common fig describes the optical density values at absorbance of 410 nm obtained with progesterone (1 4 mg), ethanol (2ml), bovine serum albumin (10mg) and stea ric acid (0.5 mg) alone or in combination.

Hand Controlled Car For Disabled Individuals Engineering Essay

upset Controlled gondola For change Individuals Engineering EssayIntroductionDefinition of simple machine simple machine was defined as a motor vehicle with four stands and ordinarily driven by an internal combustion engine. The main function of motor rail gondola political machine was aimd for the transport of passengers. Nowadays, a car is the most common superman for individualal workout in travelling, working and also shopping (Kameda 2009). Gener whollyy, a received car is invented for mean(preno arcminuteal) person who is capable to implement twain their reach and legs to control the oil pedal, pasture brake pedal, steering wheel, shift open up and also the clutch pedal for manual car in infection control.However, in this recent year, self-winding transmission car is more everyday than the manual transmission car and widely gived around the world. For all knowledge, on that point ar signifi tailt differences between an automatic transmission and a manu al transmission. For example, clutch pedal and gear shift were not rig in an automatic transmission car. Everything was automatic once we put the transmission of car into drive mode. However, automatic transmission only provide a narrow speed range while manual transmission gutter get going in a wide range of output speeds. With the automatic transmission, users can drive a car easily and no contain to control the clutch pedal and also gear shift during impulsive journey. Therefore, the driving ability has become an important part in radiation pattern life. hinderance check is generally defined as a somatic or a mental impairment which can make our play tasks more difficult or impossible. According to the World Health Organization, there was a distinction between disablement, impairment and deceaseicap. A constipation is any(prenominal) restriction or lack of ability that caused by impairment to bring about an activity in the manner or within the range considered norma l for a human being. Meanwhile, impairment is any loss or constipation of psychological, physiological or anatomical structure or function. Handicap is a disadvantage for a given individual, resulting from impairment or a disability that prevents the fulfillment of a role that is considered normal for that individual. In early(a) words, this disability term is commonly used for individual functioning which includes sensual impairment, centripetal impairment, cognitive impairment, intellectual impairment mental illness, and versatile types of chronic disease. Disability not only effects on human organs or body parts, it may be effects on an individuals participation in life.Type of DisabilityMobility and Physical ImpairmentsSpinal Cord Disability mind injuries or Brain DisabilityVision DisabilityHearing DisabilityCognitive or Learning DisabilityPsychological DisordersHand Controlled CarA relegate controlled car was a vehicle that uses both returns to operate the brake, flatul ence and clutch. Hand controlled car was frameed for the physically challenged multitude who cannot use both legs to operate the throttle and brake pedals. Thus, with the assist of go by-controlled car, alter individuals can acquire a driving license and drive safely on the road. Nowadays, there are several of mass controlled car in the market. For example, the invention of digital accelerator ring and the main hand brake in car for the driving without the use of both legs. This cars users upright command to push the digital accelerator ring towards the steering wheel to hasten and move the main hand brake downward to brake ( interpret 1.1).Figure 1.1 The Digital Accelerator Ring and Main Hand BrakeIn addition, automatic transmissions car are strongly recommended for those disabled drivers so that they do not need to operate the clutch controller.An other example of hand controlled car was used a takeout hand controls. For example, the product of trinitrotoluene portable h and controls (Figure 1.2).Figure 1.2 Demonstration of using TNT portable hand controlsFigure 1.3 Attachment of TNT portable hand controls in a carThis portable device was designed for those disabled stack much(prenominal) as amputees, paraplegics, and quadriplegics who cannot apply and maintain the pressure that needed to operate the accelerator and the brake pedal. With the invention of TNT portable hand controls, the user can use the leave hand to operate the both accelerator and brake pedals the palm is used to apply the brake pedal and the alternate is used to apply the accelerator pedal while the right hand is free to control the steering wheel (Figure 1.3).Aims and ObjectivesThe main objective of this enquiry study is to modify a car in order to alter disabled individuals drive safely on the road. In addition, the cost of hand-controlled car should low so that disabled individuals afford to owe a car. For the comfort station of disabled individuals, the hand-controlled c ar must easy in maintenance as well.Literature ReviewA standard car was designed to be control by a normal person who is able to use their arms and legs for controlling accelerate and brake pedals, a steering wheel and also a shift prise. However operations using left and right arms and at least one leg are still needed for a car drive (Kameda 2009). This paper presented a reefer car drive system for a handicap person using a wheelchair. With the help of this spliff drive system, a handicapped person can drive a car with his/her single hand. In this joystick drive system, there was a mechanised linkage attached to accelerate and brake pedals which is controlled by an operation lever. This lever only can be shifted in back and forward direction. Pulling the lever in the backward direction provide accelerate a car whereas energy the lever to the forward direction to brake a car.The demographics of the disabled and agedness populations who are demanding to maintain their ind ependence and mobility tested the driver licensing authorities to contain that physical and cognitive difficulties are measured to an acceptable standard (Roake 2008). In order to compensate for reduced ability, servo system has been developed to enable bad disabled people to drive safely and pass the standard driving test. This development engineering interfaced with the vehicles primary and secondary controls which include electronic joystick devices to operate steering, braking and accelerator along with infra red or wireless systems to interface with vehicle electronic systems such as multiple and Can Bus electronic systems (Roake 2008).Shaheen (2001) described the recent fixings on the driving-related physical and cognitive impairments faced by the elderly. Two major types of vehicle design and infrastructure accommodations were proposed (1) allowances for private vehicle and (2) intelligent technology and support serve for private vehicles (Susan A. Shaheen 2001). Adap tive driving controls, such as mechanical hand controls or electromechanical contact switches, now allowed even the most severely impaired to operate a vehicle. However, these mechanical functions are usually tell toward primary controls only, such as steering, braking, and accelerating, which limits the ability of drivers to operate secondary controls such as the horn, turn signals, ignition, and headlights (Quintin 1991). Vehicle control modifications can be effective, simple, and inexpensive. For example, the use of simple extension bars to gear levers and lever release mechanisms for hand braking.Nowadays, there are several joystick systems acquirable in commercial message which were specifically designed for those drivers with limited military force in their arms and hands. However, (Ostlund 1999) reason that the tested joystick system had several functional limitation which includes time lags, lack of feedback and risk of interference between steering and speed control. In this journal paper, a design called uncoupled control was compared with the conventional joystick design which called as coupled control. In coupled control joystick, the master lever was replaced with a forklike grip which developed for driver with tetraplegia. In other one hands, the joystick with uncoupled control was developed by modifying the joystick in order to transform the radial speed controlling cause into a linear longitudinal motion. Nevertheless, there were sensors and actuators equipped in this joystick system to monitor the drivers control commands and provide a force feedback to the driver. Therefore, the joystick will back to neutral position if the driver released it.All tetraplegics and most paraplegics depend on mobility aids such as wheelchairs for short-range expatriation (Bjorn Peters 2001). Therefore, in order to become a licensed driver, the right adaptation is needed. The purpose of this journal paper was assayd the driver performance and limitation s of drivers with tetraplegia and investigate the influences adaptation designs in drivers performance and imposed workload. There are two types of hand controls installed in a car simulator, one had two separate levers and the other had one combine lever for braking and accelerating. For the system with separate levers, the braking lever was controlled by pushing it forward, while the accelerator lever was moved radially downward. The combined lever system was operated by pushing the lever to brake and wrench to accelerate. However, both systems had their pros and cons. For example, in the single lever system, the driver was impossible to use both hands on the steering wheel, while the dual lever system will prolonged the reaction time of transfer accelerator lever to brake lever especially in critical situation.methodological analysisBefore I make further research about my thesis which entitled Hand Controlled Car for Disabled Individuals, I had search and hit the books throug h some numbers of journal articles from database such as IEEE, accomplishment Direct, and SpringerLink. For example the keywords that I used to search related journal articles were Disabled Vehicle, Hand Controlled Car, Handicapped Car and so on. Next, I decided to conduct car Myvi as my car model to do the car modification for the need of disabled people in Malaysia. In my research study, I will create my own design in draft with the commensurate dimension as well. In addition, I also need to find out the most suitable materials that can be used for the car modification. In the future, I will conduct some experiment tests, such as tensile test and stress test for the materials that was chosen to examine the characteristic of relevant material whether the material suitable to use for car modification or not. Besides that, I will also use Solidwork software to present my own design unit in 3D.Materials succeeding(a) are the criteria material of my design unitMedium to high strengt hGood toughnessGood surface finishExcellent corroding resistance to atmospheric conditionsExcellent joining characteristicsGood workabilityWidely availableBased on the criteria material that mention above, I suggest aluminum demoralize 6061 as the main material of my design unit. Aluminium alloy 6061 is a versatile heat treatable aluminium alloy. Aluminium alloy 6061 consists various of components in its chemical composition ( card 1). Besides that, it has wide range of mechanical and corrosion resistance properties (Table 2). Generally, aluminium alloy 6061 is used in umpteen applications such as aircraft structures, truck bodies, yacht construction and so on.Table 1 Typical Chemical Composition of Aluminium alloy 6061 agentAmount (wt.%)AluminiumBalanceMagnesium0.8-1.2Silicon0.4 0.8IronMax. 0.7 sloven0.15-0.40ZincMax. 0.25TitaniumMax. 0.15ManganeseMax. 0.15Chromium0.04-0.35Others0.05Table 2 mechanic Properties of Aluminium Alloy 6061TemperUltimate Tensile Strength (MPa)0.2% c ogent evidence Stress (MPa)Brinell Hardness (500kg load, 10mm ball)Elongation 50mm dia (%)0110-15265-11030-3314-16T118095-9616T4179 min110 minT6260-310240-27695-979-13ResultsFigure 4.4 First Draft Design of Hand Controlled Car UnitDiscussionAccording to the result above, I just did the sketching of my design unit. This design is easy to control, push forward to accelerate and bend backward to brake a car. However, this design occupies a lot of spaces in driver seat, thus the users will face some difficulty to enrol and leave the car.For my future work, I will modify my design in order to increase the spaces for the movement of disabled people. Besides that, I will include the placement of wheelchair in consideration of my design.

The Emerging Technology Trends In Computer Hardware Information Technology Essay

The Emerging engineering science Trends In Computer Hardware culture Technology EssayThe future of ready reckoner reckon machine hardware is re every last(predicate)y sparse due to problems in the midst of software outline and hardware engineers and software now that apprizenot upkeep up with the material the material may be decreasing as the software has priority. One thing to note is that the material cannot be all in all eliminated. The market volition always be a demand for instant(prenominal) hardware, lighter, more than coherent and comprehensive. Arguably, the material can not hire as many jobs as the software does now because of the need and progress in software applied science related to engine room equipment. The material is and testament conceptualize on generating juvenile applications that go away make life easier and business more flourishing.Apply a new type of technology use in hardware applications, cognise as COTS. Commercial and product st andards parkly cognise as COTS are proven and reliable in changing computer world. COTS allow software developers to provide new products, and hardware platform for adding usance hardware a new device is the latest USB standard is a desire a past director of external equipment transfers. Cots are devices to help be answers and progress on new computers, such as the XML protocol and new wireless advances.Another technology is the new hardware social unit is microcontroller. The micro-controller unit (MCU) complete final products to the automotive market for smart cards. 16-bit and 32-bit MCU + are the master(prenominal) products of high-end consumer, the automotive and industrial control equipment. MPU Base application and wide human body of entrenched memory and other technologies add to their permanent unit and tax growth. MCUs will carry on to see their make use of in products outside the home machine, which will allow hardware developers in the repair direction for div ersified applications.The tension between hardware engineers and software has direct to an interesting correlation. Both types of engineers must learn to work together because the software and hardware engineers need each other in an appropriate confabulation to achieve various objectives. The types of material that is developed must cease and forrard between the phase of software development for all types of applications a click the bill of fare for all the different courses. With the increase in CPU capacity, created the software will always take more than enough room to allow the go along growth of the CPU in the industry. In the research project is completed, the equalizer between hardware and software engineers stay just as all important(predicate) for the optimal completion.Trends in computer softwareIn an interview with joke Bruggeman, Chief Marketing Manager, Wind River, a software forge ships company based in the United Kingdom, which explains how the software ha s grown much swift than hardware applications. Bruggeman specialized software in Linux, which has seen faster growth than expected. For us the Linux business has grown from zero to 50 million dollars in 24 months. Not provided Linux, but Amazon has created a unique probability to expand. Amazon sack goods has launched a new enterprise IT prudence software products, which entangle the rental of innkeepers, instead of forcing companies to buy directly from a number of expensive servers. Technology recently published an articleSo far the market has taken the idea of Amazon and Amazon has shown that meshing services have already won clients such as The untested York Times, Red Hat and SanDisk. Other companies, like IBM and Sun are try to move to a new get. Sun already scissures online rental frame and expects to sell the equipment. We have the bag, says Greg Papadopoulos, chief technology officer of Sun If you do not you can beat them, their hand. Suns final report shows that the Amazon Web Services functions have hit a new market that will continue to be successful.What are the current trends in computer hardware platforms and the evolving mobile platform, grid reckon, and bribe computing?Mobile platform more and more business computing is moving from PCs and desktop machines to mobile devices like cell phones and Smartphones. Data transmissions, Web surfing, e-mail and instant messaging, digital centre displays, and data exchanges with knowledgeable corporate systems are all gettable by a mobile digital platform. Net books, sensitive low-cost lightweight subnotebooks that are optimized for wireless converse and net profit approach, are included. football field computing storage-battery grid computing combines computer from systems six-fold administrative domains to achieve uncouth aims to solve a simple task and can disappear very fast. A grid computing key strategies is to use middleware to divide and pass on pieces of a program bet ween some(prenominal)(prenominal) computers, sometimes up to several thousands. Grid computing is to compute in a distributed manner, which may in like manner involve the aggregation of cluster systems based on commodious computer companies. The size of a grid can vary from a small restricted to a network of computer workstations in an enterprise, as for large existence works across many companies and networks. The idea of a expressage network may also be known as an intra-node, charm the idea of bigger, wider networks may refer to inter-nodes.The grids are in the form of distributed computing where the super virtual computer is composed of many networked computers to perform tasks freely collaborate large. This technique has been applied to computationally intensive problems in science, math and academic volunteer computing, and is utilise by commercial message enterprises, such as various applications such as drug development, economic forecasting, seismic epitome and ba ck-office data processing, support for e-commerce and web services.Grid computing gives a off the hook(predicate) way to solve Grand Challenge issues, like proteins, financial modeling, earthquake simulation, weather patterns. The grid provides a way to use IT resources optimally deep go across an organization. They also offer a means of providing information for their technology and commercial business customers, with customers paying only for what they use, such as water and electricity. Grid computing is used by the grid of the field of study Science Foundation, National Technology, NASAs Information Power Grid, Pratt Whitney, Bristol-Myers Squibb Co. and American Express.The European Union has been a swell supporter of grid computing. A lot of studies and projects have been funded by the European Commission Framework computer programmeme. Lots of projects are emphasis here, but 2 of them deserve special point out Enabling Grids BEinGRID and for e-Science.Business Experim ents in GRID is a project, and also have a 1/ fourth amount of the whole project is funded by the European Commission as an incorporated go out under the 6th Framework Programme Sponsorship Program (FP6). Introduced in June 2006 and the project lasts for 2 years, until November 2009. The research is organized by the Atos Origin. harmonise to the project sheet is their mission to create effective ways to call down the adoption of grid computing across Europe and to stimulate research on innovative business models using Grid technologies. Extracting best practices and common themes of the experimental implementations, two groups of consultants to analyze a number of pilots, technique and business. The results of this cross analysis provided by the TI website called www.tude.com. The project is important not only for its longevity, but also for its financial plan to 24.8 million Euros, is the greatest of all integrated projects in FP6.The grids of the E-science, which is founded the European Union and also sites in the States and the most part of the Asian continent, is a follow-up project of the European DataGrid (EDG), and is probably the largest computer network on the planet. This, together with the LHC Computing Grid (LCG) was developed to support the experiment at the Large Hadron Collider at CERN. LCG Project at CERN is based on the need to handle large amounts of data, where the place are involve to store several gigabytes per second. A list of nimble sites within LCG can be found online as well as real-time monitoring of the EGEE infrastructure. The software and documentation is also favorable to the public. It is speculated that opthalmic fiber dedicated links, such as those installed by CERN to meet the take of large volumes of data from the LCG may one day be available for home users and profit service reach very fast virtually a thousand times faster than the usual broadband net profit connection.Until April 27, 2007, United Devices United Devices Cancer Research Project based on its Grid MP product, which cleans the PC cycle of volunteering over the Internet. Grid MP in June 2005 ran about 3000000 machines.Cloud computingCloud computing is computing on the Internet where shared resources, software and information is provided for computers and other devices on demand, with the grid.Cloud computing is a natural change of the well known to use of virtualization, SOA and utility computing. The details are extracted from consumers who no longer required specialized knowledge or control over the technology infrastructure that supports the tag. Cloud computing describes a new addition, consumption and delivery model for IT services Internet-based and are generally over-the delivery of Internet resources dynamically evolving and ofttimes virtualized. This is a result of product and ease of access to computer sites that offer Internet distance. This is mostly takes the form of internet based applications and alikels that use rs can access and get use through an internet website browser as if it were a program installed locally on your own computer system. NIST provides a comment a little more objective and specific here. Tag article as a metaphor for the Internet based on the design previously used tags to represent the telephone network, and then to describe the patterns of Internet computer network as an abstraction that represents the underlying infrastructure. A typic befoul computing provider to provide common business applications online that is accessible from another web service or software as a Web browser, while the software and data stored on serversMost corrupt computing infrastructure consists of services offered by the centers joint and integrated servers. Clouds lots appear as single point of access to the computing needfully of consumers. Commercial facilities are generally required to meet Quality of Service (QoS) of clients, and generally include service level agreements (SLA). The big cloud providers include Amazon, Microsoft and Google. Some large IT companies who are actively involved in cloud computing, Fujitsu, Dell, Hewlett Packard, IBM, VMware, NetApp and Microsoft.There are several doubts and confusions in relation to the phrase called interbreeding when applied to the cloud a criterion description of the word intercrossed Cloud has not yet risen. Cloud margin hybrid has been used to assign 2 clouds. Separate conference ( private, public external or internal ) or a blend of clouds virtualized server instances that are used in combination with the actual physical hardware. The correct definition of the term hybrid Cloud is probably the use of physical hardware and virtualized server instances tag together to provide a unique and common. Two clouds were still are more properly a unite cloud.A combined cloud computing environment composed of multiple combined internal or/and external suppliers would be typical for most companies By integrate clo ud computing services to multiple users to facilitate the transition to the public cloud services while avoiding problems such as PCI compliance.Another locating on the implementation of a web application in the cloud using hybrid Web hosting infrastructure is a mix between Cloud hosting and dedicated servers it is usually implemented as part of a Web cluster, where some nodes running real physical hardware and some running on the server where the clouds.How network economics, declining communication costs and technology standards affect IT infrastructure?Network economicsEconomics refers to the Business Network, which will benefit from the network. This is where the value is a good or service increases as more battalion buy the product or service. Examples include websites like eBay, or if the iVillage community together and share ideas to help the website become a better business organization. Metcalfes Law explains the proliferation of computer use by exhibit that the value of network participants grows exponentially as the network becomes more members. As the number of members in a network increases linearly, the values of the overall system grows exponentially and theoretically continue to grow indefinitely with increasing membership.Declining communication costs The communication costs are rapidly declinationing down daily. The costs of communication and the exponential growth in the size of the Internet is a driving force that affects the IT infrastructure. When there is a decline happened in the communication cost will reflect several advantages and disadvantages to the information technology infrastructure. The main advantage of decline of communication costs is when its get fall to a very small and approaches zero, the use of communications and computer exploits.Technology standards According to the growth of IT industry, the standards of design and communication is getting improved and more competitive day by day. Technology standards and econom ies of scale release stiff lead to decreases in the prices that manufacturers focus on products manufactured by a single standard. No economies of scale, the information of any kind would be much more expensive than is the case today.Creating and maintaining a coherent IT infrastructure raises multiple challenges includingMaking wise infrastructure enthronizations, IT infrastructure is a major investment for the company. If too much is used for infrastructure will not be used to form drag its financial performance. If it is too little used, a major business services cannot be delivered and competitors of the companys better than investing in the company. Coordinating infrastructure components attempts to create IT infrastructures, select a combination of vendors, pot and technology services and fitting them together so they operate in a coherent whole. Dealing with scalability and technology change as companies grow, they can easily find that their infrastructure. As companies sh rink, they can get stuck in too much infrastructure has been purchased in better times. Scalability the ability of the computer of a product or system expansion to serve more people without breaking down. Leadership and management refers to who controls and manages the IT infrastructure.

Digital Manipulation | The Ethics Of Photography

digital treatment The Ethics Of picture takingPhotography is a do of visual intercourse (LESTER, Paul, 2006). Photographs ar holdd for a range of purposes including documenting personal consequences much(prenominal) as birthdays, weddings or christenings, for advertising returns or go, for decorating the home, and for appointing authority and authenticity to in the al togethers stories. Passports and both(prenominal) other official categorys of identification drill fools as a counseling to identify muckle. Current culture is date compulsive and we argon exposed to motion-picture paradery ein truth waking min of our lives through fleshs of visual media on the Internet, television, reinvigorateds publishers, magazines, windings ph whizzs and directly tablets.In using picy to identify an individuals identity or to document the occurrence of an event, a huge amount of trust must be invested in the spiritualist of the germinate. Photographs argon apply in courtrooms as evidence, an occurrence that evidences the trust invested in moving pictures. By using ruptures as evidence it is important to nous if the medium of the word picture is an accurate dischargeing of veritableity. In 2012 an Iranian news agency spend a penny an app atomic number 18nt newly developed military scoke make by Iran, see go in 1. The make look was soon dis hold step uped to be an already published image of a dr sensation(a) developed by a Japanese University which had been modified to give the impression it was a new and authentic image of a new machine con locationred desirable by a government. This example evidences the create ambiguous and potenti completelyy dishonest intention of digital economic consumption within picture taking. Image habit such as this encourages those who read these images and similar images to consider whether images create been forged and if so, to what extent and for what motivation. The readers of images mus t fountainhead the media that they read and question the veracity of the images whilst non awarding long doubts in the media in general or jumping to the conclusion that ever soy image read has been manipulated. This dissertation leave alone consider much fully claver the habit of imagery, whilst p cunningicularly the using of digital pictorial mattery and pull up stakes valuate how this bear upon has strickleed media credibility.Iran palmyly tests Koker-1 VTOL drone (PHOTO)Figure Manipulated image r extinctined by Iranian Government to try substantiate deveoplemt of military drone.journalism in our society practically requires the combination of visual and written t severallying to two reach and inform a mass target audience. at that give is a difference between the crack and the written federal agency which is that the television camera is able to acquire reallyity (NERI, GRAZIA, 2003). Early burgeon forthic engine room necessary a example to be un ruffled in stage for it to be recorded whereas modern engine room allows for a picture to be make in less(prenominal) than a second. This signifi enduret development in applied science mover that overpowers and material capable of being characterisationed invite become farther much drawn-out than in the early years of picture taking where limitations were oblige by both camera size and slowness of film. There is besides a fundamental difference between clicky and the written ledger in documenting homes. The written word allows an author to liaise reality, choosing what aspects of a loose to detail and discover, governed often by personality and knowledge of a subject. A characterisation however, whitethorn be taken in a situation in which time is limited which in turn forces the lensman to record a subject with gnomish conscious consideration to other objects within the image. Additionally, be pillow slip the camera is seen as a mechanical device it is non co nsidered to mediate reality exchangeable a written account. The camera instead is seen as a device that records the true and privynot be used subjectively (BAUDELAIRE, CHARLES, 1855). If a photograph is considered to thrust been be manipulated, for example through the use of scene to give a assorted reading of the photographs meaning then this could be regarded as providing a less than this could be regarded as a subjective facsimile. Whereas in regard to the written word mediation is much less alarming cod to our familiarity with literature as a subjective imitation of reality. It is understood that words atomic number 18 make up of symbols and signs that express the subject they characterise. The word form does not innately inform the reader it means the object cup provided rather the meaning of the word cup is understood by reading the letters of the word. Yet a photograph is able to demonstrate the appearance of the object it wagers and it is able to make this re e ncloseation with little interpretation required.An Inherent RealismUnlike mental picture or writing, a photograph bay window record a specific present moment in time. A painting screwing be of a place that has never existed and literature may describe any place whether real or not. However the example of the Iranian military drone demonstrates that picture taking sh atomic number 18s the said(prenominal) magnate as painting and writing in that it can be subjective. Although, painting may be able to demonstrate the sense of a subject, it is assumed that picture taking is unable to. In fact, photography has a stronger kind with specificity as opposed to generality found in painting and writing (MITCHELL, WILLIAM J, 1992). Photographys ability to accurately document is recognised by governments who use photographs for identification purposes in official documents such as passports and driving licenses. Because photography is used for such official purposes, the race it hol ds with specificity is strengthened. However, the Iranian military drone example contests that a photograph may not ever show the reality of the situation.Photography is powerful because it carries the authority of bearinging like reality. When skin senses through a forgive glass window it is easy to immobilise that you ar looking through a glass window at reality. Because photographs look so much like reality, it is easy to disregard the labyrinthine mechanical and scientific processes which combine to create the photograph. This mechanical and scientific process is not as simple as the window analogy and pull up stakes be further reconciled or distorted by considering the engineering science employed. It is this change magnitude reliance on science, where there is even no long-lasting a latent image as with running(a) processes by which the photograph is do which prompts legitimate and valid questioning of a photographs legitimacy.Barbara Savedoff (1997) uses the one-dimensionaly of a hallucination to describe the relationship a photograph has with reality. Savedoff argues that we know photographs argon not real and that we know hallucinations are not real. However, photographs seem so real that it is unmanageable to determine the difference between representation of reality in the photograph and the fact that the photograph is all a representation to begin with. Furtherto a greater extent, Savedoff points come forth that photographs do not just record a scene, they similarly thump a segment of the moment they represent.The idea that photographs contain soft from the subject they recorded was considered greatly by early lensmans and theorists. In analogue photography, illumination bounces off the subject and enters the lens and makes contact with the film starting a chemical reaction which produces an image on the surface of the film, creating an exposed detrimental. This light used to expose the negative has a specific relationsh ip with the subject, the negative and subsequent the printed photograph. Susan Sontag (On Photography, 1977) argues that this process is called the trace and refers to it as both(prenominal)thing directly stencilled off the real. stern Berger (Uses of Photography, 1980) as healthful maintains that the value of the photograph is found within its relationship with the subject. This raises the question when a photograph is manipulation what effect does it hurt on this relationship between light, subject and recording medium?It is important to note that forrader a photograph is manipulated the photograph may not already be an fair game observation of a subject (HUEPPAUFF, BERND, 1977). It is the lensmans decision from where and in what sort a subject or scene should be recorded. Other decisions take on what to keep inside of the frame. Once the composition of the photograph is do, there are still variables controlled by the lensman that can ultimately change the way in which the photograph is read. The exposure of the photograph is another consideration, along with the abbreviate performed by the person who has comissioned the photographer to make these photographs. In a news surround, an editor may choose the photographs he thinks best fit the objective of the agency regardless of whether or not that is an entirely accurate representation of the events that took place. These decisions can weaken the objectivity of the photographs made.When photographs are evaluated, one consideration is esthetical quality (BARRETT, TERRY, 1985). Photographs made for journalism are seldom truly documentary film (BARRETT, TERRY, 1985). Increasing the aesthetic value of documentary photographs is not new. During the Spanish civilized War, Robert Capa made a photograph of a militant being shot. It later turned out to be staged to create a much compelling photograph.The place of those who produce and broadcast photographs can too affect the way in which a photograph is understood (HUEPPAUFF, BERND, 1977). For example, if a photographer is photographing a earthly concern demonstration and they feel positively toward the demonstration, it is probable that they will make photographs that show the demonstration in a positive light. However, if the photographer was opposed to the demonstration then they are likely to record anti-social behaviour of members of those involved. This example shows how the photographer can manipulate the photograph and the reality it presents (BARRETT, TERRY, 1985). In summary, the photographs objectivity which is already questionable due to the way in which the photographer makes a photograph is further questioned as it may squander been manipulated by those commissioning the photographer through the process of selection, ultimately undermining the objectivity of the photographer and photograph.Adnan hajj photographed Beirut later on an Israeli bombing. Hajj edited the photograph and added to a greater extent smoke to make a more compelling photograph. Hajj used the clone tool within adobe brick Photoshop to clone and facsimile smoke to additional areas of the photograph, see Figure 2. After initially publish the photograph, Reuters withdrew it once members of the public claimed it had been manipulated. To anyone who asked to use Hajjs photograph, Reuters stated that the work was no longer on tap(predicate) and stated that Hajj no longer works for Reuters (DAY, JULIA, 2006). The photograph was picked up by a blog, which recognised the fake because the same segment of smoke occurred in multiple places (DAY, JULIA, 2006). Manipulated images are normally harder to identify, especially with more advanced package and more experienced digital editors. This case evidences the appetite for Hajj to make a more compelling photograph for his clients by manipulating the aesthetic qualities of his photograph.https//sites.google.com/site/tsoldrin/leb-phony.jpgFigure Adnan Hajjs manipulated representa tion of Beiruit Bombings in 2006Nonetheless, Hajjs photograph was created subjectively nevertheless it is important to note that even photographs that are objective can be interpreted in distinct ways. For instance a photograph may be used in court to prove that an event has happened. During a trial the two opposing sides may read photographic evidence of the same subject in different ways, even from the perspective of the photographer who took the photograph. (HUEPPAUFF, BERND, 1977). It is apparent that photographs curb never been entirely objective now or in years bypast. Additionally, it is apparent that they record the views of an individual as presented as if they were actuality.While with digital photography it may be easier to manipulate photographs due to the availability of digital cameras and re bloodline software over darkroom equipment, the truth is that photography has a historic relationship synonymous with manipulation. Derek Bouse (2002) reasons that people gen erally believe that the age of a photograph relates directly to its accuracy, and that the onetime(a) a photograph is the more likely it has not been manipulated. However, still legion(predicate) instances of analogue photographs exist. For instance, a photographer employed by Mathew Brady during the the Statesn gracious War named Alexander Gardner rearranged a dead person on the theater to make a more compelling photograph, see Figure 3 (LESTER, MARTIN, 1991). It is important to recognise that this manipulation took place before the photograph was made. The employ of digital photography is still vulnerable to manipulation before the photograph is made however manipulation is usually carried out after the photograph is made.http//www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USAPgardner.jpgFigure Alexander Gardner rearranges the position of a corpse and gun to summation the drama of photographAnother photographer known for manipulating a photograph prior to making one is Edward Curtis. Curti s paid Native Indians to jog in exotic c volumehing and photographed them to make a more compelling photograph and to turn them into a spectacle for the public to view them (MICHAELIS, PAMELA, 2008). However, by dressing these subjects the cost of the photograph as document is reduced, see Figure 4.Although analogue engineering science was the latest available technology, it was still used to manipulate photographs, even after being made. For instance, in family portrait photographs it was common for members of the family to be cut and paste into a photograph (Lodriguss, 2008). People would sometimes appear to be disproportional to others in the pictures due to the position of the subject in the original photograph. In some photographs people are to a fault seen floating.http//blog.lib.umn.edu/melan002/melandblog/Piegan-Lodge,%20clock.jpgFigure Edward Curtis changes the traditional dress of subjects and removes clock from the photographAn example of someone who used many negat ives to form one photograph print is Oscar Rejlander. In the 1860s, for some pieces of work he used in excess of 30 negatives to create his well-known The cardinal Ways of Life which demonstrates a philosopher between a flavor of equity and vice, see Figure 5. These heterogeneous prints were made by cutting together numerous negatives and using them to create a photographic print. In order for the final photographic print to be consistent from left to right, it was resilient that sizing and contrast be the same to prevent people from hovering supra the ground. Rejlander, before using multiple exposures and cutting negatives in photography was a painter. These examples show that even before digital tomography technologies existed there was extensive manipulation of photographs through analogue techniques.http//twcdc.com/andycox/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/Oscar-gustave-rejlander_two_ways_of_life.jpgFigure Oscar Rejlander uses up to 30 composite negatives to create one photograp hUsing double exposures was also rattling common and was used often by photographers namely Eadweard Muybridge who photographed landscapes. The photographic materials of the 1850s were not very culture medium to green but were however very sensitive to bluish. Therefore, landscape photographs were often improperly exposed. The correct exposure of the blue turn over would render the foreground underexposed, or if the foreground would be exposed for the blue sky would be white with no detail. In order to discharge this problem Muybridge and a handful of other photographers at the time would create negatives of desirable skies with differing cloud and all exposed properly. He would then use these negatives to add well exposed sky to his landscape photographs (SCOTT, AMY, 2006). The photograph produced would look natural to a viewer but is obviously a form of manipulation, a process often practised today by digital photographers. Muybridge photographed Yosemite and not only added a false sky but upstage trees that prevented his view over the landscape, see Figure 6 (SCOTT, AMY, 2006).http//www.imaging- vision.com/ee_uploads/news/1284/muybridge-2.jpgFigure Edward Muybridge, used his collection of cloud negatives to combat technical limitations of early photographyThe so far discussed photographers spend a penny used manipulation to enhance the aesthetics of the photograph however photography has also a large tarradiddle with propaganda and political influences. Vladimir Lenin manipulated photographs as a form of propaganda to make historical events die hard his regime for the Soviet Union. Individuals who were seen as enemies of the state were often ordered to be killed by Stalin. If these individuals were to be within a photograph next to Lenin they would often be removed. Leon Trotsky is a prime example of this. Once Lenin had determined that Trotsky was an oppositeness of the state he was ruleically removed from all traces of him from state photograp hs. Nikolai Yezov also suffered a similar fate once he fell out of favour with Stalin. This process of manipulation live photographs carried on to the late 1900s.From looking at Muybridge, we can see that there are numerous stages in the manipulation and some of which are not clear that they have been altered. Edward Steichen statesA manipulated print may not be a photograph. The personal incumbrance between the action of the light and the print itself may be a blemish on the purity of photography. But, whether this intervention consists merely of marking, shading and colourize in a direct print, or of stippling, painting and scratching on the negative, or of using glycerine, brush and mop on a print, faking has discipline in, and the results must always depend on the photographer, upon his personality, his technical ability and his feeling (STEICHEN, EDWARD, 1903, p.48).Here Steichen is arguing that every decision the photograph carries out whether that be painting or scratchin g on the negative is a form of manipulation or as he calls it of faking. Steichen also refers to the personality, technical ability and his feeling which refers to the photographer and their intentions or motives which will manipulate or cause the process of faking. In the period of digital imaging some of these manipulations are seen as ethically acceptable and are not disputed. Media agency guidelines for manipulation, which we will talk about in greater depth soon, maintain that manipulations that were accomplishable during analogue printing technique times are still genuine. These assertions are that if the chemicals used in the darkroom manipulated a photograph in a certain(prenominal) way then this would be a part of the photographic method and could not be criticised. Steichen obviously would not agree with this as he knows the extent to which analogue photographs can be manipulated.Digital Technology and ManipulationThe initiatory device invented that could digitise or ma ke analogue photographs available in a digital format was a electronic scanner made by Russell Kirsh in 1957 (TERRAS, MELLIA M, 2008). The scanner functioned by looking at the variations in tone within photographs and assigning a digital value to represent a tone band. Instead of creating a new photograph this scanner copied an existing photograph and recorded it digitally. Because photographs can be scanned to a digital format, the initial analogue negative can now be manipulated digitally and the truth value held by analogue photographs can now be challenged.Birth of Digital ImagingDuring the 1960s digital imaging technologies was still only used by large institutions such as NASA and the American government. It was not until the 1980s that the media began to use digital imaging technologies. Digital technology could be employed to enhance the clearness of television broadcasts and speed up the time in which photojournalists were able to send pictures to the media.In 1982, Nationa l geographic published a photograph of the pyramids at Giza on the front cover of the magazine, see Figure 7. The photograph has been manipulated to fit a horizontal photograph of the pyramids onto the portrait cover of the magazine to make the front cover more captivating (TERRAS, MELLIA M, 2008). It is important to note that this instance of manipulation was one of the first by a recognised organisation. National Geographics editor, Fred Ritchen who ascertaind to campaign the pyramids felt he had achieved a new point of view by the retroactive repositioning of the photographer a few feet to one side (WRIGHT, TERRENCE, 1999, p.110). Ritchens defence to accusations of manipulating the photograph was that if the photographer had moved and taken the photograph at a different time of the day then the photograph would be the same (WRIGHT, TERRENCE, 1999). However the fact dust that this photograph was not the one that was made. The fact that the photograph was manipulated was not br oadcast. It was admitted to have been manipulated when other journalists questioned the photograph. Howard Chapnick (LESTER, MARTIN, 1991, p.96) argued that the words credibleness and Responsibility allow photographers to call photography a profession due to ethical considerations rather than a crease. Chapnick goes on to argue that not maintaining these ethics will damage journalistic impact and photography as a language. Lastly, he maintains the threat to credibility is permanent if people begin to disbelieve the news photograph.http//www.lagunabeachbikini.com/wordpress/wp-content/images/newspictures/national-geographic-feb82.jpgFigure National Geographic Magazine Cover 1981In 1985 digital cameras became widely used by professional photographers. Companies also food marketed digital imaging camera to the public for domestic use. During this time the processing capabilities of computers was also advancing and provided a way for individuals to load image manipulation software and manipulate photographs. In 1991 the American government and the media used digital photography as a technology for the first time in a war environment. Not only was digital photography used to photograph the war but was used in weapon systems by America (FLORIDI, LUCIANO, 1999).A much more current use of digital imaging technology is live electronic manipulation. Manipulating a live feed allows the change of satellite image feeds. On the fly image editing may be used in sports programming to show lines on pitches or by governments to hide classified buildings from satellite imagery that is available to the public such as Google Maps. News television channels can also employ technology to sow text feeds beneath news anchors. Delta Tre add on FIFA with sports data services and on screen graphics (BEVIR, GEORGE, 2012). In 2012, the colligation of European Football Associations placed recorded footage of a fan glaring at the opening of the game and played it after one of the tea ms had win the game to make for more compelling television. Ivan Amato (Lying with Pixels, 2000) argues that as this technology becomes more widespread and available the credibility of video media will be alter for good. In some ways this is similar to National Geographics manipulated make in that both representations existed but were manipulated to give heightened sensation.The abilities that digital imaging technology have provided have been used by Walt Disney Imagineering Studio to take existing photographs and film of aged or dead celebrities made in the past to be used in new programmes or films (AMATO, IVAN, 2000). This use of technology to manipulate media, demonstrates how analogue photographs and films are susceptible to these processes and also questions the fundamental reputation of the final product? Is it simply a manipulated piece of video footage or a new creation entirely? Mitchell (The Reconfigured Eye Truth in the Post-Photographic Era, 1992) argues that it is a new creation entirely. Mitchell also argues that photography in recent times has entered a phase which he terms pseudophotography meaning that digital photography is not photography. Though the two methods are comparable, they possess different manipulation potentials which are examined in the next section.Manipulation Since Digital photographySavedoff (1997, p.19) argues that technologies alter rather than simply add to the resources of art. This suggests that photography as an art form has been altered by added manipulation potential. This new digital imaging practice should pose a whole range of ethical considerations relating to the manipulation of photographs. However, this has largely failed to have happened due principally to differentiating between the printed or published digital or analogue photograph creating difficulty in identifying and maturation a set of different standards for each method. Photographys relationship with reality as previously depict is appare nt in digital photography, however the relationship created by the subjects personal relationship with light as evinced by Sontag and others will be absent in a digital photograph. There is no latent image. In an analogue photograph created through a chemical process there is room for argument that the relationship with light remains intact. Although this trace looks to be evident in a photograph created by digital means, the trace is not a chemical reaction but a digital representation of reality and therefore not an insert feature of the relationship between the subject and the photographic process as with analogue. Additionally, the very nature of digital photography means that the process is unmeasured in the number of alterations or manipulations that can be applied. These manipulations leave little or no evidence of themselves.Modern digital cameras allow the photographer to instantly review the image made and thus allows them amend the and other factors of image capture unt il the photographer is satisfied with the final result. Images are manipulated by using computers and image editing software such as Adobe Photoshop, along with scanners to digitise analogue images. Therefore, photographs made before digital photography are susceptible to manipulation just like the case of Disney outlined earlier (BOUSE, DEREK, 2002). The development of digital imaging technology has changed photography and its relative relationship with veracity permanently. This lends evidence to Bouses argument that old photographs may be more widely trusted and that digital photography makes readers of images certain not only of current manipulations but of those in the past also. The reader of an analogue photograph, although aware that the photograph was made before the invention of digital technologies is aware that the photograph might have been manipulated and nonetheless changes the way the reader interprets all photographs, manipulated or not (SAVEDOFF, BARBARA E, 1997) . This suggests that digital technology has decrease the impression that photographs are nearlyly objective and truth-relating and that there is a greater tendency for viewers of images to question the veracity of all photographs. A key factor in this significant reduction of trust is the difficulty for the average reader to slowly and readily distinguish between manipulated and non-manipulated photographs.Conversely Michelle Henning (2007) argues that digital imaging technologies have enabled limited new ways of manipulating a photograph. Henning continues that digital technologies have only made the manipulation of photographs more available. Henning also argues that the public was previously unaware of image manipulation techniques before the invention of digital imaging technology. Digital manipulation has made the public more aware of photo manipulation and paradoxically served to growing the frequency with which images are manipulated.Evolution of a modal(a)Photography ha s been constantly developing since its birth in the 1800s and many of the changes have been driven by evolving technology but were always ground on chemical reactions to light. In the 1820s Joseph Niepce found a method to permanently locate a photograph using lavender oil and bitumen. Niepce swiftly developed this method further into heliographs made by using silver nitrate. Eduard Daguerre was also looking for a way to photographically record subjects and contacted Niepce to work with each other. After Niepce died, Daguerre found that mercury could fix images much more permanently and created the Daguerreotype which Daguerre believed at the time serves to draw nature and gives nature the power to reproduce herself (MARIEN, MARY WARNER, 2002, p.23). Since photographys invention the idea of a device that could create lineal representations of reality was widely believed yet now we begin to see photography may not deserve the verisimilitude it has been ascribed. At the same time en thalpy Fox Talbot worked on a photographic method using paper print. Like the creation of photography and the creation of digital photography these changes and advances were driven simultaneously by several individuals at once. The daguerreotype became the most universal and was widely used to make very simple portraits. Later though, interest was presumptuousness to the Calotype created by Talbot. The Calotype was less reliable but allowed for prints to be reproduced much more easily and allowed greater detail with the print at least initially. During the mid-1800s negatives were made from glass and coated with albumen paper. These proved much more logical and gave more detailed and sharper results than earlier methods. With regard to contemporary digital methods, has digital photography made reproducing images easier due to the fact that digital images when stored on a computer can be duplicated instantly, require no medical specialist education, now contain little or no cost and can be transmitted and viewed spherically without a physical print ever being produced? Being able to reproduce a photograph has always been desirable and this is shown by the demand for the Calotype. Bearing in mind that digital imaging technology has helped progress the ease, convenience and technical, it has done this in a way that has divided the two forms of photography causing great debates among both practitioners and observers of both.Mark Amerika, digital artist and writer, in an interview draws attention to and discusses the differences between digital and analogue photography. Amerika claims that images and how they are read is influenced by the way they are captured, suggesting that as technology changes so does our interpretation of photographs (JACUPS, Karen, 2006). Because photography is much more easily manipulated with digital photography it can be argued that the objectivity of the photograph is lost and it is futile to pursue objectivity (JACUPS, Karen, 2006) . It would seem true that manipulation is more common since the advent of digital photography, which could argue that the making of an image is only a small portion of the final product like in the aforementioned case of Rejalnder. two Mitchell and Savedoff claim that digital photography and the manipulation of it cannot be compared to analogue photography because it is a new medium (MITCHELL, WILLIAM J, 1992) (SAVEDOFF, BARBARA E, 1997). Both continue to argue that because with digital photographs the image is created with a digital sensor digital capture is a separate process to analogue capture.Digital photographs receive their authority because they are almost identical to analogue photographs and this authority is passed to the digital photograph. However, if this authority is diminished, digital photography may be criticised for its lack of authority. News reporting currently accomplished by digital photography maySiemans Micro surround and BCG AnalysisSiemans Micro Environmen t and BCG AnalysisSIEMENSCOMPANY REVIEW BACK GROUNDTO THE strategicalal DECISION atomic number 16 is a worldwide track placement in electronics and electrical engineering labor which is operating(a) in the sphere of influence of ability, communication and healthcare heavens. There are few industries working in the global market of small and large worry which have maintained their successful history of quality products and customer satisfaction. second is also one of those well known and established organizations, having imperial to be the leading business. siemens was founded by Werner Von due south and Johann Georg Halske in 1847. The production Electrical Telegraphs are the unparalleled source of sulphur for the past many decades to achieve the large amount of its general sales. For more than one and a half century, atomic number 16 is still popular in private-enterprise(a) industries for its innovative achievements, technical supports, quality, reliability, an d globalization. Being the environmental loving is one of many other positive aspects of reciprocal ohm to feel proud of. Almost one third of their gross is generated by environmental informal green products and solutions. In fiscal 2009, ended on folk 30, 2009, sulphur had taxation of 76.7 billion and net income of 2.5 billion. At the end of September 2009, the troupe had around 405,000 employees worldwide. (www.siemens.com)To acquire the long run and effective advantages, generally most of the organizations utilize Strategic decisions. Strategic Decisions help the businesses maintain their quality on the long term directions. Strategic decisions are comprised by considering the organizations activities and analysis to decide the working areas of any organizations. south strategic decisions are quiet clear so far. Siemens basic strategy is to focus particularly on asylum and technology driven maturation markets and until the substantive time they have been quiet successful in setting up the trend of new technology and capturing leading positions maintaining their strength of local existence and creating local determine on the global level.Siemens believed in diversification and innovation since the arrangement which make outstanding business sector. They started identifying market particulars upcoming trends and drawing the strategic results early on. Some years past, Siemens improved their portfolio to four megatrends including demographic change, urbanization, climate change and globalization which are already influencing our daily life today, and the impact of these trends is increasing substantially in the decades. The activities into the sectors of Industry, slide refrainener and healthcare have been the main points of consideration for business. They also set the stage to achieve leading positions and customer satisfaction in amiable continuous ontogenesis markets.micro ENVIRONMENT ANALYSISOrganizations have adopted the internal analysis as a key feature with the frequently changed environment nowadays. To face the environmental change in the on-going time it has been more useful for the businesses developing strategies utilizing their own resources and capabilities. Siemens has already made it the prior concern for its organization believing their internal resources and strategies as the main strength to achieve their goals. pecuniary ResourcesThe congregation recorded revenues of E77,327 million (approximately $116,294.4 million) during thefinancial year ended September 2008 (FY2008), an increase of 6.7% over the financial year ended September 2007 (FY2007). The operating profit of the group was E2,492 million (approximately$3,747.8 million) during FY2008, a decrease of 50.2% compared with FY2007. The net profit was E5,725 million (approximately $8,610 million) in FY2008, an increase of 50.4% over FY2007.(Data Monitor Siemens AG). fleshly ResourcesSiemens are very diversified in geographical presence. They ferm ent in 190 countries spread over the Americas, Europe, CIS, Africa, Asia, Australia, and Middle East. During FY2008, the group generated 26.1% of its revenue from Americas, 52.7% from Europe, CIS, Africa, and21.2% from Asia, Australian, and Middle East.(Data Monitor Siemens AG)Human ResourcesIt is in the concern of Siemens that outstanding, competitive and innovative employees are their strength and valuable assets. All of their employees are highly trained, focused and innovative. This belief in their staff plays an important case for Siemens to sustain in the world market.Reputational ResourcesSiemens is operating in over 190 countries and for over one hundred sixty years. It had created a good and remarkable reputation around the world. They have made them very diversified and manufactured their own brands. Their brands include generators, electrical products, healthcare equipments and many others are some of the outstanding and famous worldwide.MACRO ENVIRONMENT ANALYSISThere are some factors that keep changing time to time. These factors are called External factors. No organization can depend on it because of their constant change. Organizations are set about many economic and global problems to sustain. Due to the present dynamic environment internal strength has been the key part for organizations rely on in order to face any of these challenges. As far as Siemens is refer, they have been well prepared and have completed their provision charge these challenges in front. They introduced remarkable measures that will not only help them survive these crisis without being highly affected but also they will egress much stronger with the passage of time. Because they began query, identified market specific and started to draw the strategic consequences instead early on to prevent their strength getting weak.Their compound grooming made them able to precisely consider the upcoming opportunities and threats. This homework helped them identify the na ture of advantages, opportunities and threats before the time which areOpportunitiesSiemens had bought rather a few businesses in recent years because they think that these businesses have potential to drive its business harvest-feast. In January 2007, the group acquired US based UGS, one of the leading providers of product lifecycle management (PLM) software and services for manufacturers. In the same month, Siemens Water Technologies strengthened its service and product business in the US with acquisitions of four companies Envirotrol, CEC, Pure Water Solutions, and Sunlight Systems. In November 2007, the group acquired Dade Behring Holdings, a manufacturer and distributor of diagnostic products and services to clinical laboratories. (Some information is taken from www.siemens.com)ThreatsSiemens had done all their homework but still threats lie in front of them. Siemens faces intense opposition across its market segments. As Siemens is a huge industry with different sectors the ir competition is much higher than other industries. Their main competitors in the industry sectors are ABB, Alstom, Bombardier, Emerson Electric, familiar Electric Company, Honeywell International, Johnson Control, Philips, Schneider Electric, and Tyco International. (Information is gathered from www.datamonitor.com). Likewise in energy sector as well its main competitors are General Electric, Alstom situations, Mitsuibishi, Abbott and lots more. As it is quite clear that, such competition could adversely affect the revenues and profit margins of the group.DIRECTIONS FOR GROWTHIt very important for organizations to be b danger when choosing the strategic direction, it is a useful method for organizations to launch their products in the market and in order to gain competitive and desired advantages. As it is pointed out by Johnson, Scholes and Whittington that organizations should be aware of 3 types of motives or pressures that may variety their choice which areEnvironment Base d MotivesAs Siemens is concerned they already had pointed out the growth of economies in the different continents. The group operates in about 190 countries Spread over the Americas, Europe, CIS, Africa, Asia, Australia, and Middle East. During FY2008, the group generated 26.1% of its revenue from Americas, 52.7% from Europe, CIS, Africa, and 21.2% from Asia, Australian, and Middle East. (www.datamonitor.com)Resource Based MotivesAs being one of the most diversified groups Siemens have very strong resource capabilities. Due to their high revenues Siemens can afford to spend remunerative amount on their RD. In 2008 Siemens increased its research and development investment to (approximately $5,690.9 million).Igor Ansoff has developed a well known matrix system to analyze the directions of strategies and mix between the products which a company sells and the market is to be sold.Siemens has set the task for capturing leading positions in attractive growth markets. In order to maintain their position Siemens targeted their business activities to some sectors including Industry, get-up-and-go and Healthcare. Siemens direction of its strategy lies in all 4 stages of Ansoff matrix.Market PenetrationWith the help of its targeted business activities in leading growth market Siemens is constantly penetrating the market. They also have a much diversified customer based group. This group has industrial, infrastructural and diversified customers. The group can be classified in markets like as revel and logistics (such as transport authorities), construction, communication, real estate, metals and mining, machinery, utilities, automotive and many others.Market educationSiemens is operating in over 190 countries and for over 160 years and generating high revenues which is increasing with the passage of time. Its because they had identified their opportunities and threats. Their prior homework of seeking new markets made them able to achieve the targeted financial market. fruit DevelopmentProduct development is a very effective and attractive way to counteract a new entrant in market. Product development is to introduce new product to the market or the same product with enhanced and added new services. Siemens has been successful maintaining their vast market, product quality and customer satisfaction around the globe. The basic sectors Health, Industry and Energy are the ones providing them a remarkable deal of opportunities to develop their products. Some of the products and services in energy sector spectrum such as LED energy saving lighting and building control system are up-gradation to their products for their present markets.DiversificationDiversification is one of the key parts for organizations to gain competitive advantage over their competitors. On the other side it includes a great deal of risk for organizations because a huge amount money is required to invest lucrative amount in RD. As The Siemens is a market business leader in the gr owing sectors, so it deals with the risk to shine with upper hand. Siemens had always believed in innovation and the technology as said by the founder of the Siemens Werner Von Siemens If you are not moving forward you are moving backwards. Siemens diversify its business by two different ways.Related DiversificationSiemens operates in confused sectors of the business market. It provides so many opportunities to diversify beyond the substantive product market within the broad confines of the ongoing industry. Siemens always tried the best in their value strand to gain new products market and customer satisfaction. In industry sector Siemens offers different products such as services like building, communication, lighting, mobile solutions and in energy sector they are providing distribution of power, conversion, extraction and lot more.Unrelated DiversificationSiemens has also diversified its business sector activities beyond its current scope or industry sector. Because of dealin g with tierce business sector activities, Siemens always believed in technology and innovation in their products and services. It requires a great deal of investment in RD. Siemens has a very powerful RD. Recently Siemens had increased their research and development investment to E 3,784 million. Siemens invested with Fujitsu in laptops, which is a very good example of unrelated diversification.PORTFOLIO ANALYSISThe strategy of Siemens portfolio is quite clear for the past many years which set the target to capture and maintain the Number 1 or Number 2 in the future profitable and competitive markets. By doing that Siemens believe they can survive and get through in the difficult constantly changed environment. Siemens is concentrating deeply on renewable energy and organic growth of various products and services. In the past five years they had invested 20 billion Euros in the acquisition of growth business. Siemens has established its leading position in the attractive growth mar ket working out with its three business sectors Healthcare, energy, and industry. As a part of DESERTEC a Solar Thermal Power in Sahara and Wind Farm in Europe are being constructed. They have also being producing Smart Grid Solutions based Technologies such as Electric Cars and lot more. The best and precise portfolio Analysis of Siemens is comprised by Boston matrix.BCG Matrix Siemens AGMETHOD OF trainingSiemens have varieties of methods and strategies to develop their SBUs (Strategic Business Unit). It is because they had a diversified business culture worldwide and they operate in 3 major sectors Healthcare, Energy and Industry. Siemens is constantly operating with their strong partners and developing their services to beat their competitors, therefore they are gearing the value chain to efficiency. They believe that for outperforming their competitors they have to consistently work out and improve their services better than they are. followers the belief of always being bette r than they are, Siemens is successfully developing their services to sustain in the market and improve customer satisfaction. As a diversified business Siemens believe in utilizing different methods of development. Strong RD department is one of their strenghts. They are able to afford the organic development. They also intend to continue the assurance of strict resource tryst in the future they are very keen on the essential growth.In the past five years Siemens have invested 20 billion Euros in the organic development. There was a significant increase in RD budget and it got its RD location in more than 30 countries worldwide. Siemens is also keen to acquire growing businesses. They had recently invested more than 20 billion Euros in order to acquire businesses. Siemens is constantly optimizing its portfolio of Products. every(prenominal) year numerous acquisitions and divestitures are completed by Siemens.In 2005 alone, Siemens invested around EUR 2.5 billion in new business es and the 2006 figure will be substantially higher. On the divestment side, the carve-outs of BenQ, Product Related Services and Logistics Assembly have caused a stir.Regarding recent prominent acquisitions, such as Flender AG (Germany), CTI (USA), premium (Denmark), US Filter (USA) or VA Tech (Austria), Siemens Management Consulting were earlier involved in the pre- and post- link upr integration (PMI) work. (Information is gathered from www.smc.siemens.de)It is Siemens belief that acquisitions helped them come closer to achieve their goal of growing a fast global market. Siemens is also running many vocalize ventures with one of their SBUs for obtaining growth. Such as Siemens and Nokia have announced their intention to merge the network business of Nokia and the carrier related operations of Siemens into a new company which they will call Nokia Siemens networks. Its a 50-50 joint venture. In which both parties will invest half and half share. Both parties are looking forward to stand as a global Leader with strong position in current important growth segments of fixed and mobile network infrastructure and services.

Proton-proton Coupling Constant

Proton-proton Coupling ConstantEasily recognized splitting patterns found in conglomerate spectra provide the chemical substance inclines of the discordent sets of hydrogen that generate the signals differ by two or more ppm. The patterns atomic number 18 symmetric alto brookhery distributed on both sides of the proton chemical transubstantiation, and the central furrows be always stronger than the outer lines. The intimately commonly ascertained patterns have been given descriptive names, such as doublet (two equal book signals), triplet (three signals with an intensity ratio of 121) and quartet (a set of four signals with intensities of 1331). The line separation is always constant within a given multiplet, and is called the spousal relationship constant (J). The magnitude of J, usually given in units of Hz, is magnetic dramatic art independent. Coupling constants play an immense role in configurational and conformational studies. The congenator position of protons i s determining factor for Vicinal mate constant betwixt two protons. For example, in 1,2-disubstituted ethenes, the larger vicinal coupling constant was observe amidst the olefinic protons for the trans isomer 82a than for the cis isomer 82b 127,134.The vicinal coupling constant depends on the dihedral angle in the midst of the protons in saturated systems. Karplus 118 gave pars 1 and 2 relating the coupling constant with dihedral angles.J1 = k1cos2 c (0 90) (1)J2 = k2cos2 c (0 180) (2)These equations were later modified as equation 3.J2 = A cos2 B cos2 + C (3)In equation 3, J is the coupling constant and A, B and C are constants related to the electro-negativities of the substituents attached to the C-C segment. The J value decreases markedly with amplify in the negatronegativities of the substituents 135-140.13C- nuclear magnetic resonanceTransitions of only 13C nuclei are spy in 13C-NMR spectroscopy. Figure 3 represents diverse values (in ppm), couplings, cou pling constants (in Hz) and chemical shifts of 13C nuclei processing in different chemical environments. Usually, value scale of 13C-NMR ranges from 0-220 ppm with pry to TMS as internal standard. 13C-NMR spectral commentary can be vanquish understood from chart given in figure 3 126,127.13C chemical substance shiftAs in the same ways of proton NMR spectrum, chemic Shift in 13C NMR spectrum provides the hybridization (sp3, sp2, sp) of each carbon center out-of-pocket to shield and de screen subject. Each carbon core has its own electronic environment, different from the environment of other, non-equivalent nuclei. Figure 3 Chart representing 13C nuclei chemical shift due to different chemical environments. Electronegative atoms and pi bonds type down shifts (Thinkbook). Spin- spin out coupling provides the number of protons attached to the 13C nuclei. (i.e., primary, secondary tertiary or foursome carbon) 126,127.Carbon (13C) has a much broader chemical shift range. One key difference is that the aromatic and alkene regions overlap to a significant completion 126,127.Many factors such as inductive effects of substituent, hybridization state of the observed karyon, Van der Walls and steric effects between closely lay nuclei, electric fields originating from molecular dipoles or point charges, hyperconjugation, mesomeric interactions in electron systems (delocalization effects), diamagnetic shielding due to heavy substituents (heavy-atom effect) and anisotropy effects is know to beguile the 13C Chemical shift of six-membered phone compounds.Among those factor, electrostatic effects due to the presence of a heteroatom in the cyclohexane moiety and steric perturbation effects be intrinsic importance. Lambert et al. 141 documented the effect of heteroatom in monoheterocyclohexanes 83 on the shifts of ring carbons. The -shift is a steep function of electronegativity of heteroatom X. A luxuriously frequency shift of about 50 ppm is produced by a n increase in one unit electronegativity. However, a small effects of heteroatom electronegativity on and -carbons are produced, a shift of -2.5 ppm/electronegativity unit for and -5.0 ppm/electronegativity unit for -carbon, respectively. Ramalingam et al have demonstrated the effect of asylum of heteroatom in 84a-84e 86. The fall order of the deshielding effect of heteroatom on the benzylic carbon is O NMe NH S. because of a field effect, the heteroatom generates a low frequency an upfield shift in the carbonyl resonance.Contrary to and effects, the -effect is being a property of at to the lowest degree four atoms and it has a torsional component. All anti substituents cause increased shielding on C-5 due to the presence of and protons. The anti effect C-3 is found to be rather deshielding. The resonating carbon and perturbing substituent showed the dihedral angle arrangement ranging from 0-180. -gauche effects is found to be al intimately independent of the natur e of the perturbing chemical gathering X and generally guide in the 60-80 regions, whereas -anti effect in the 150-180 regions. The introduction of an axial substituent shifts the resonance of a -carbon to debase frequencies. The -anti effect (introduction of an equatorial substituent) is small. interpreting of the substituent effects mainly depends on the steric and polar effects 142-144.Based on the 13C NMR spectrum of vinylcyclohexane at low temperature, Buchanan observed the low frequency shifts in 85a relative to the equatorial counterpart 85b 145. Based on the 13C NMR spectrum of various di-and tri- methyl groupcyclohexanes, Dalling and Grant 146 observed an axial methyl group shifts the resonance of C(2), C(3) and C(4) at 1.40, 5.41 and 6.37 ppm and the corresponding resonance shifts for an equatorial methyl group at 5.96, 9.03 and 0.05 ppm, respectively. The shielding by an axial methyl group relative to an equatorial methyl group has been ascribed to steric interaction s 142. Furthermore, The 13C NMR data of 4 hydroxypiperidines results indicate that substituent effects are markedly baffled by steric interaction. Eliel et al. 147 study on -effect of heteroatoms in heteracyclohexanes 86a-86d provide enjoin that the -carbon located anti to a second-row heteroatom (X=O NH) resonates at significantly lower frequency than the analogous carbon anti to a methylene group or a third-row heteroatom.Pandiarajan et al. 13 suggested a method of assigning the configuration of a substituent in saturated sixmembered ring compounds, living in chair conformation, from 13C chemical shift of a single epimer. Furthermore, the influence of the nigh substituents on the substituent parameters of equatorial methyl, gem-dimethyl, and equatorial and axial hydroxyl groups in several six-membered ring compounds 87a-87g has been suggested by Pandiarajan et al 13. The magnitude of the effect of a particular substituent is significantly reduced by a nearby substituent and the magnitude of the effect decreases as the number of gauche interactions increases. Though, the and effects are not influenced by the nearby substituents 13.Nuclear Overhauser effect (nOe)The change in intensity of one NMR resonance that occurs when another is saturated is known as the nuclear Overhauser effect (NOE). NOE arises from dipoledipole cross-relaxation between nuclei, and its usefulness. The dexterity of a given NOE enhancement is approximately correlated with internuclear separation (actually r6 where r is the internuclear distance). However, the NOE also depends on other factors such as molecular motions 148.In small molecules in solution, the NOE is positive and causes affected resonances to increase in intensity. NOE for small molecules is generally measured victimisation one-dimensional trys. In small molecules, NOE determins particular stereochemical relationships, such as substitution or ring fusion patterns in largely rigid systems. The NOE is negative for larger molecules and cause affected resonances decrease in intensity. NOE for larger molecules is usually measured using the two-dimensional NOESY investigate or one of its multidimensional variants. Using the NOE to using of three-dimensional structural information using NOE generally depends on interpretation of an overlapping, redundant network of enhancements, rather than on calibrating precisely the distance dependency of individual enhancements. NOE determine accurate three-dimensional solution structures of biomacromoleculs such as DNA, RNA, or other proteins 149.A spin-excited nucleus is known to transfer its spin null to that of an adjacent nucleus resulting in spin relaxation. The efficiency of energy transfer is directly related to the distance between the two nuclei. The nOe grosses avail of the spin energy transfer 149.The nOe decreases as the inverse of the sixth great power of the distance between the protons. An interesting application of nOe to a structural caper has been described by Hunter et al. 150 When styrene is polymerized in the presence of 4-methoxyphenol, in sum to the polymer, a 11 adduct is obtained by the addition of a styrene molecule to 4-methoxyphenol. However, the question of whether the addition occurs at C-2 or C-3 could not be answered from any the 1H or 13C NMR spectrum.The nOe experiment provided a decision in favour of structure 88. Irradiating the OCH3 resonance gave an increase in the intensities of the signals of the ring protons HA and HB. From this it is obvious that both these protons are ortho to the OCH3 group. In crinkle the signal of the third ring proton HC showed a negative nOe. This is a fortune of an indirect nOe in a multi spin system. In further, nOe experiment it was shown that saturating the OH resonance increased the intensity of the HC signal, providing additional evidence for structure 88.TWO-DIMENSIONAL NMR SPECTROSCOPYCOSY, a homonuclear 2D NMR correlation spectroscopy, correlates chemi cal shift of two hydrogen nuclei located on two different carbons that are separated by a single bond via j coupling. thence it detects the chemical shift for hydrogens on both F1 and F2 axis. The most important two-dimensional NMR spectra show any 1h vs 1h or 1h vs 13c chemical shift correlations 126,127. Here, we attempt to discuss about the some of the important types of 2-D experiments. patternIn 2D-NMR, the structural information are obtained from the interactions between two nuclei, either through the bonds which connect them (J-coupling interaction) or directly through space (NOE interaction). These interactions occur at a term by irradiating one resonance in the proton spectrum (either during the relaxation delay or during acquisition) and provide the effect on the intensity or coupling pattern of another resonance. 2D NMR fundamentally allows us to irradiate all of the chemical shifts in one experiment and gives us a matrix or two-dimensional map of all of the affected n uclei. All possible pairs of nuclei in the sample processed at the same time 128,129.The basic steps in 2D experiment are as follows.1. dressing Excite nucleus A, creating magnetization in the x-y plane2. Evolution Measure the chemical shift of nucleus A.3. miscellany Transfer magnetization from nucleus A to nucleus B (via J or NOE).4. Detection Measure the chemical shift of nucleus B.Preparation and Evolution A 90o pulse excites all of the sample nuclei simultaneously. Detection is only recording an FID and finding the frequency of nucleus B by Fourier transformation. To get a second dimension, we have to measure the chemical shift of nucleus A before it passes its magnetization to nucleus B. This is accomplished by manifestly waiting a period of time (called t1, the evolution period) and letting the nucleus A magnetization rotate in the x-y plane. The experiment is repeated many a(prenominal) times over (for example, 512 times), recording the FID each time with the delay tim e t1 incremented by a fixed amount. The time course of the nucleus A magnetization as a function of t1 (determined by its effect on the final FID) is used to define how fast it rotates and thus its chemical shift. commingle is a combination of RF pulses and/or delay periods which induce the magnetization to jump from A to B as a result of either a J coupling or an NOE interaction (close proximity in space). Different 2D experiments (e.g., NOESY, COSY, HETCOR, etc.) differ primarily in the mixing sequence, since in each one we are trying to define the relationship between A and B within the molecule in a different way 128,129.